From childhood to the last stage of the life cycle, friends play an essential part in people’s daily lives. Despite the difficulties that trusting others may pose in some cases, numerous studies have found the beneficial effects of forming this type of bond. Friendship refers to the close bond formed between two people or a group. This type of relationship is usually based on trust, affection, loyalty, sympathy, and respect that the members of the relationship reciprocally give to each other. Friendship is a fundamental component of life that also promotes mental health. It is undoubtedly one of the most significant emotional relationships that one can have. In some literary books, authors have highlighted the importance of friendship, which can be seen in both old books like „Don Quixote” and more modern ones like the Harry Potter series. Many movies have also made friendship the main component, such as „Stand by Me,” the „Toy Story” saga, „Cinema Paradiso,” or TV series like „The Big Bang Theory” or „How I Met Your Mother.” Although, undoubtedly, the best relationships are the real ones. Why is Having Friends so Important? Humans are social beings, and from birth, we need the care and affection of others to survive. As we grow, we become part of different groups and choose who we want to spend our free time with. Having friends fosters a sense of belonging to these groups, which provides great emotional value to individuals. Feeling integrated in our immediate environment is often directly related to increased self-esteem and motivation. In addition, being able to trust your friends and share intimate and private information with them, in most cases, contributes to stress relief. Feeling heard, understood, and loved is often a good „pain reliever” for emotional pain. Conversely, perceiving that the other person in the relationship shares their secrets, concerns, achievements, emotions, etc., can make you feel valued and loved, improving the self-concept of the person listening. It should be mentioned in this section that this benefit occurs in functional friendships, where each person, in addition to this bond, has their own space and does not feel dependent on the other person. Being able to trust a friend also helps to overcome difficult situations that a person may be experiencing, such as grief, a breakup, the loss of a job, etc. Being able to share difficult moments with someone who supports and encourages you is therapeutic and creates a deeper connection. Friends can help you change harmful lifestyle habits. Several studies have shown that, in many cases, friends are the ones who motivate change in unhealthy habits, such as quitting drinking or smoking, exercising more, etc. A friend who cares about your health can help raise awareness in someone who may not realize it themselves. It also serves as a source of motivation to start an action plan together, such as going out to exercise. It is also true that the influence a friend can have can be so great that, at times, it can negatively affect and encourage behaviors that one may not want. This mainly occurs in adolescence, but also in childhood, and to a lesser extent in adulthood and old age. Returning to the positive side, the feeling of unconditional acceptance generates well-being. This refers to being able to feel like yourself in your truest essence, without hiding any characteristics of your personality that you think others may not like. Some studies suggest that a strong emotional bond of friendship makes it easier for the other person to express everything they feel, both cognitively and emotionally, which can sometimes be difficult to do in a romantic or even familial relationship. Friends at Each Stage of Life Friendships are important at every stage of life, from childhood to old age. It is well known that children, from a very young age, begin to forge the foundations of friendship: at daycare, at the park, in their community, etc. By sharing experiences, moments, and even toys, young children begin to understand the basics of this essential bond in life. It should be mentioned in this section the importance of allowing children to choose their friends and learn to connect with others. In some cases, parents and other caregivers may „choose” their children’s friends either because they believe they may be „good influences” or because they are friends’ children or simply because they have affinity with certain children. However, it is essential for the child to have their own space and be able to decide who they want to play with. Nevertheless, it is crucial to be able to detect situations where a child is suffering due to certain relationships. For example, this can happen in cases of bullying, in which case the involvement of parents and other caregivers is necessary to eradicate the situation. In adolescence, relationships with friends become very significant and intense. In certain cases, this stage can be complicated, as hormonal changes, conflicts with primary attachment figures, the development of formal operational thinking (abstract thinking level), and the emergence of first romantic relationships occur. With all these biological, cognitive, emotional, and social changes that a person experiences during their adolescent years, having friends as support becomes significantly important. As Jane Austen wrote in 1798 in the book „Northanger Abbey,” friendship is the best balm for the wounds caused by unrequited love. In other stages of life, it is equally important to establish and maintain friendly relationships for all the aforementioned benefits. While it is true that new friendships are formed throughout life, it becomes more challenging as individuals progress through stages, primarily due to two factors: there is less free time available, and people become „more selective” when it comes to connecting. Making Friends in Today’s Society Besides the mentioned difficulties, it is worth mentioning the obstacles we can encounter in making friends given the type of society we live in. These obstacles affect the ability to make friends at any stage of life. Thanks to the development of some online applications, it is very easy to communicate with those who are far away, eliminating certain communication barriers with those who live far from us. However, these same applications can make it more challenging to establish deeper bonds of friendship with those who are closer to us. Especially during adolescence, new technologies can cause serious problems in the interaction among young people. According to sociologist Zygmunt Bauman: In liquid modernity, everything is unstable: love, work, politics, and friendship. The concept of „liquid modernity” refers to the changing, volatile, and unstable state of today’s society, where we experience many changes in a short period. Regarding friendly bonds, it can be effortless to have many „friends” on social networks like Facebook or „followers” on other platforms like Instagram. However, through these means of communication, it is difficult to convey „human warmth” or establish a real bond. To conclude, given all the mentioned benefits, it is crucial to emphasize the importance of forming quality and meaningful friendships…

Social and cultural changes that have occurred up to now have contributed to the genesis of a society increasingly linked to consumption with a higher prevalence of loneliness and isolation. This situation has been related to an increase in problematic issues associated with different forms of addiction. Although substance addiction has captured the attention of research and interventions, it is considered that excessive inclination or excessive use towards an activity can lead to addiction, even if chemical agents are not involved in this process. Likewise, this type of addiction generates a state of dependence that can restrict individuals’ interests. Therefore, habits that initially seem harmless can become addictive, causing significant interference in various areas of a person’s life. Along the same lines, loss of control in the development of an activity, continuity in its performance despite negative consequences, and the development of increasing dependence are the factors that define the presence of addictive behavior. Additionally, excessive use in terms of intensity, frequency, duration, or money invested can distinguish between normal and addictive behavior. In this way, „non-chemical addictions” are defined by the implementation of repetitive behaviors with the aim of reducing internal tension experienced by the individual. Regarding the maintenance of addictive behavior, it is initially determined by reinforcing or pleasurable aspects of it (ease in carrying out tasks, new forms of social contact, etc.). However, over time, such behavior becomes controlled by negative reinforcers such as relief from emotional tension or discomfort (boredom, loneliness, anxiety, etc.). Addiction to new technologies Addiction to new technologies consists of the abusive consumption of some device or service such as computers, mobile phones, video games, and even the internet or social media. It is a problem present in all age groups, but a higher prevalence has been detected in teenagers and young people who make greater use of these platforms. Despite being considered a specific addiction, it shares a series of common characteristics with other addictions, such as loss of control, withdrawal syndrome, psychological dependence, interference in various areas, and loss of interest in other activities. The problem is considered to be consolidated when there is excessive use accompanied by loss of control and withdrawal symptoms (anxiety, irritability, low mood, etc.). Furthermore, it is associated with the development of tolerance, meaning the need to be connected or to engage in greater consumption that impacts the execution of everyday activities. Along the same lines, the World Health Organization (WHO) indicates that one out of every four people suffers from some problem related to new addictions. Additionally, it is estimated that in Spain, the prevalence of addictive disorders associated with new technologies ranges between 6 and 9% of users. On the other hand, it is important to note that addiction to ICT can be the manifestation, in some cases, of another primary addiction such as addictive behaviors associated with sex or pathological gambling. In these cases, new technologies would become the vehicle for accessing another issue. Likewise, it can serve a similar function in other conditions such as social phobia, depression, or obsessive-compulsive disorder. Signs and symptoms Many people who suffer from this type of addiction may show behavioral alterations that generate conflicts in different environments. Based on a bio-psycho-social model, the repercussions of excessive use of these platforms in different areas of a person’s life can be highlighted: Physiological consequences: A decrease in food intake and hours of sleep is quite common due to staying connected or „hooked” to the activity. As a result, various problems associated with excessive fatigue, headaches, muscle problems, mental exhaustion, alterations in the immune system, etc. are common. Psychosocial consequences: Arguments and conflicts can occur at home due to resistance to reducing disproportionate use of the addictive object and a decrease in cooperation and coexistence at home. Likewise, social isolation resulting from a notable decrease in social contact, abandonment of routine activities such as hygiene habits, and the appearance of economic or legal problems are common. Additionally, the abuse of social networks can hinder the development of social skills, resulting in difficulties in interaction and the creation of fictional or virtual relationships. Professional consequences: One of the most significant changes is a decline in work or academic performance as a result of decreased dedication to these activities or excessive attention to addictive behavior. Psychological consequences: Irritability, low mood, or feelings of emptiness are common when the use of these platforms is deprived. Additionally, emotional alterations associated with anxiety, emotional impoverishment, or the absence of coping skills are common. Risk factors Various psychological theories consider that certain personality traits or emotional states increase an individual’s vulnerability to „fall into addiction.” Among these factors, some of the most related are antisocial behavior and sensation-seeking. However, elements of learning, conditioning (reinforcements), and experiences during development also play a role. Some of the most prominent risk factors are as follows: Macrosituational factors: These factors include social acceptability, accessibility, and availability of other resources to engage in addictive behavior. Age: Due to the recent expansion of new technologies and virtual platforms, young people and adolescents are the most vulnerable due to the greater use they make of them, as well as the reinforcing effects of their use at this age. Unsatisfied implicit needs: The pleasure and craving for acquiring the latest model of a computer, mobile phone, etc. can mask other more relevant needs in the individual. Thus, the obsession with getting these novelties can contribute to the establishment of addictive behaviors related to their excessive use. Uncohesive identity: Social networks and online platforms provide a means to create a false identity in a highly rewarding virtual world. Personality traits and emotional states: Some characteristics such as impulsiveness, sensation-seeking, excessive shyness, low self-esteem, and inadequate coping styles for everyday difficulties, as well as states of dysphoria, fatigue, worry, low mood, and hostility, are some of the factors most linked to the development of addictive behaviors. Family factors: Certain educational patterns, such as more rigid or permissive family styles, have been associated with non-validating environments and the presence of self-control or self-regulation difficulties that could favor the establishment of addictive behaviors as a way of emotional regulation. Social factors: Social isolation or connections with people who have excessive use of these devices and platforms can incite and enhance the „addiction” to them. Finally, this is a problem that is generated and maintained by a variety of factors. Therefore, it is necessary to conduct a comprehensive evaluation and intervention that allows us to understand the origin and cause of the problem, as well as the function it serves in the individual and the search for a solution. Rafael Fenoy Castaño References Aguilar, O.E. (2012). Some factors related to addictions. Revista de Especialidades Médico-Quirúrgicas, vol. 17 (2), pp. 69-70. Retrieved April 10, 2017, from the website: http://www.redalyc.org/articulo.oa?id=47323278001 Arias, O., Gallego, V., Rodríguez, M.J., & Pozo, M.A. (2012). Addiction to new technologies. Psychology of Addictions, Vol. 1, pp. 2-6. Echeburúa, E., & Corral, P. (2010). Addiction to new technologies and social networks in young people: a new challenge. Adicciones, Vol. 22 (2), pp. 91-96. Echeburúa, E. (2012). Risk factors and protective factors in addiction to new technologies and social networks in young people and adolescents. Revista Española de Drogodependencias, Vol. 37 (4), pp. 435-447. Retrieved April 10, 2017, from the website: […].

Erectile dysfunction, also known as sexual impotence, is one of the biggest concerns for men in terms of sexual health. Currently, there has been a noticeable increase in medical and psychological consultations related to this issue. Human sexuality consists of a relevant dimension of personality and individual experience that arises as a result of the interaction of different factors such as organic, psychological, environmental, social, etc. Consequently, there is a need to address this issue from a holistic perspective and a multidisciplinary approach. In this way, sexuality constitutes a biopsychosocial function whose effectiveness depends on the coordination of various components. Additionally, this function is structured in a complex process in which different phases are differentiated: sexual desire, arousal, and orgasm. We can speak of sexual dysfunction when one or several of these phases are altered. In this way, it is possible to differentiate different groups of problems associated with sexuality: disorders of sexual desire, disorders of sexual arousal, disorders of orgasm, sexual pain disorders. This more generalized classification needs to be supplemented with issues associated with a medical condition or pathology that could justify the presence of some of these problems, as well as sexual dysfunction induced by substances, including the use of certain medications. Furthermore, these issues can arise at the beginning of sexual life or in more advanced stages. On the other hand, due to the involvement of this variety of factors and the great diversity of sexual behaviors, there is a great difficulty in establishing a difference between normality and pathology. Despite the long list of research on this subject, the exact prevalence of sexual dysfunctions is not known due to the numerous variations found in different studies. However, data obtained so far indicate the presence of a high percentage of men and women who suffer from one of these conditions at some point in their lives. Among male sexual dysfunctions, the most common are premature ejaculation, erectile dysfunction, and lack of sexual desire. These problems, which affect different phases of human sexual response, prevent the enjoyment and complete resolution of sexual activity, generating serious repercussions at an individual and interpersonal level. Until recently, sexual issues have reflected a very small number of consultations for various social and cultural reasons. However, with the appearance of various campaigns and new forms of intervention, there has been a normalization of these types of problems, contributing to a different interpretation of them and an increase in medical and psychological consultations. What is Erectile Dysfunction Erectile dysfunction consists of difficulty in achieving and maintaining an appropriate erection until the end of sexual activity. However, this difficulty does not necessarily imply the presence of problems with ejaculation or arousal. This problem can arise at different times. Depending on the timing of onset, it can be classified into two different types: Primary: appears at the beginning of sexual life (adolescence) and may be the result of vascular abnormalities or other organic problems. Secondary: occurs after a period of normal erectile function and sexual activity. It is usually more related to psychologically based causes. Erectile dysfunction has become the most common reason for consultation within sexual dysfunctions. However, it has been observed that its prevalence is lower than problems associated with a lack of control over ejaculation. In this line, it is estimated that the prevalence of males with erectile dysfunction ranges from 8% to 52% of men between 40 and 70 years old, rising to 75% in the case of people over 80 years old. Also, various studies have found that 8.6% of men between 25 and 39 years old have some degree of erectile dysfunction. Causes of Erectile Dysfunction Regarding the etiology or causes of this type of problem, both organic and psychological factors are highlighted. Also, in many cases, factors from both types may appear, making it difficult to identify the main cause and establish a single underlying factor. The main factors responsible for the origin of erectile dysfunction are the following: Organic: vascular problems, hormonal alterations, neurological injuries, anatomical alterations, endocrine causes, etc. Psychological: anxiety, concern about sexual performance, negative sexual experiences, fear of failure in the relationship, inadequate sexual education, specific sexual phobias, stressful situations, etc. Negative sexual experiences and anxiety associated with sexual activity can lead to a loss of self-esteem and an increase in anxiety levels that will result in poorer performance in future sexual practices. In this way, a cycle is created that can explain the maintenance of these types of problems. On the other hand, both erectile dysfunction and premature ejaculation have been associated with stress responses and known psychosomatic disorders. The presence of stressful life events can have harmful consequences for the body. In this way, these events can alter the individual’s intrapsychic balance, leading to behavior patterns and new habits that seek readaptation in the environment. Some authors have defined the existence of a complex process that explains the origin and maintenance of erectile dysfunction: the presence of a negative experience and the demands of the partner generate a negative predisposition accompanied by a perception of lack of control over one’s own sexual response as well as its outcomes. This situation would shift attention from erotic stimuli (necessary for adequate arousal and erection) to negative consequences (inability to maintain an erection and carry out sexual intercourse), resulting in increased anxiety levels that cause loss of erection and, ultimately, an aversion to sexual relationships. Consequences of Erectile Dysfunction Through various studies, a long list of both individual and interpersonal consequences has been observed: Reduced self-esteem and self-confidence. Alteration in the sense of masculine identity. Decreased quality of life. Interpersonal conflicts with the partner. Deterioration of the relationship. Feelings of shame, humiliation, and guilt. Emotional instability: anxiety, stress, low mood, etc. Decreased interest in sexual activity. Disruption in social interactions. Decreased productivity in different activities (including work tasks). All of these consequences, along with experiences of failure and fears of further unsuccessful attempts, can lead to denial and avoidance behaviors that prevent proper coping with the problem and the search for a solution. Treatment of Erectile Dysfunction First of all, it has been emphasized on many occasions that, regardless of the cause of erectile dysfunction (organic or psychological), psychological intervention is a fundamental pillar due to the various emotional repercussions generated on the individual and their environment. Numerous approaches have highlighted the need to eliminate the anxiety that commonly underlies this type of problem as the main objective of intervention. This anxiety can manifest itself through fear or apprehension of failure in future sexual practices. At this intervention point, there is controversy regarding the primary objective. Many interventions focus on reducing activation levels or anticipation without paying attention to predisposing or vulnerability factors that have contributed to the origin of the problem. However, other interventions try to go further, considering this anxiety or fear as a reflection of an intrapsychic dynamic developed from adverse experiences throughout the individual’s development. This latter intervention seeks to carry out more thorough work that will allow going back to the primary origin of the problem, as well as the elaboration of adverse experiences that have not been properly processed and that may have manifested through the anxiety or fear that underlies a sexual disorder. On the other hand, a fundamental objective in the treatment is addressing the improvement of communication between the individual and their partner.

ADHD represents one of the most frequent reasons for consultation due to the enormous consequences it can have for the person and their family in different aspects of life. The prevalence rate is estimated to be between 3-7% of the school-age population. What is the current situation in Spain regarding Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)? Due to the significant repercussions it has on personal, family, academic, or work development, ADHD has become one of the most investigated disorders in recent years. It is a neurobiological disorder that begins in childhood and whose symptoms can persist into adulthood. Some of the symptoms that characterize the disorder are levels of impulsivity, activity, and inattention that are dysfunctional for the individual. Population surveys suggest that ADHD occurs in approximately 5% of the child population and 2.5% of adults. Regarding the average age of symptom onset, it ranges between 4 and 5 years old. Diagnosing ADHD in preschool age can be difficult because some symptoms may be typical for the age, so it is the intensity, frequency, and impact on the environment that would indicate the presence of ADHD. People with ADHD constitute a quite heterogeneous group, showing a significant variation in the intensity of symptoms, age of onset, and presence in different situations, as their expression can be influenced by situational factors such as the time of day or fatigue, and motivational factors such as a lack of vitality in task performance. It is known that, in some cases, the symptoms exhibited by individuals can be influenced by the environment or cultural group in which they develop, so it is important to take into account the adequate evaluation of ADHD. As for gender, prevalence studies show a higher frequency among males. Many of these individuals show great difficulties in controlling and regulating their behavior, emotions, as well as adhering to established rules. As a result of this, problems in adaptation may arise in the family, school, peer relationships, and possible decreases in academic/work performance. Risk Factors According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, there are three factors that may contribute to a greater likelihood of developing ADHD, including: Temperamental factor – Certain personality traits may predispose to the disorder, although they are not specific to it. Some of these traits include a lack of behavioral inhibition, the need for greater effort to have behavioral control, negative emotionality, and a high level of novelty-seeking. Genetic factor – a certain degree of heritability has been established for ADHD. Despite genetic probability, these traits would not be necessary or sufficient for the development of the disorder. Visual and auditory impairments, metabolic abnormalities, sleep disorders, nutritional deficiencies, and epilepsy are considered possible influences on the symptoms of the disorder. Environmental factor – A list of environmental causes cannot be conclusively established, although correlations have been found in some cases. Some of these factors could include smoking during pregnancy (part of this association reflects a common genetic risk), a history of child abuse, neglect, multiple foster homes, exposure to neurotoxins (lead), infections (e.g., encephalitis), or exposure to alcohol during intrauterine life. It is important to highlight the role that the psychosocial environment plays as a fundamental modulator of the biological predisposition to ADHD. The environment influences how activity, impulsivity, and inattention are understood and managed by the family, school/work, or society. What are the functional consequences of ADHD? Some of the most notable consequences in the population that presents the disorder, whether children or adults, are as follows: – Academic/work performance: this is one of the most affected areas by ADHD. In the case of children, insufficient or variable dedication to tasks that require sustained effort can lead to low academic performance, limited academic achievements, and even school dropout. Problems related to school and a tendency towards negligence, in some cases, towards peers tend to be more associated with symptoms of inattention, while peer rejection and, to a lesser extent, injuries from accidents are more related to symptoms of hyperactivity or impulsivity. In the case of adults, ADHD is associated with lower job performance and achievement, higher absenteeism, and sometimes even higher unemployment in this population. – Family relationships: the family environment is key in this type of disorder since relationships with family members can be negatively affected. A higher proportion of interpersonal conflicts and divorce incidents have been found among the adult population with ADHD compared to the general population.
– Social relationships: certain behaviors or responses developed by individuals with ADHD can be interpreted by their immediate environment as irresponsibility, laziness, or lack of cooperation, so it can be a complicated task for individuals with ADHD to establish and maintain a safe and stable social bond with their peers. In some cases, situations of isolation and/or social rejection towards the affected person may even occur. – Emotional problems: the various problems that may arise in the aforementioned areas often lead to noticeable symptoms of anxiety in individuals, a low level of self-esteem, and a lack of resources to cope with these situations in their daily lives. Detection of cases and treatment There is currently controversy about the criteria that should be used in the diagnosis of ADHD. Difficulties in the diagnostic process and evaluation methodology result in demographic variations, leading to underdiagnosis or overdiagnosis (the latter being more frequent) of the disorder in the population. It is essential that professionals working in the field of pediatrics, neurology, child and adolescent psychology, and psychiatry have a practical guide on the assessment and treatment of ADHD that brings together the best scientific evidence and is useful for selecting the best option in the diagnosis and treatment of the disorder. As for the treatment plan, a good option would be to start with education about the disorder, that is, to provide the necessary information about the entire process to the affected person, their family, their environment, and other professionals. In the case of children, their closest family environment should be informed about the common characteristics of the disorder, its relationship with the problems it presents (behavior, learning, self-esteem, social skills, family functioning, etc.), the clinical course it can follow, and intervention strategies. It is important to explore the parents’ knowledge, their previous experiences, and their expectations, in order to demystify the disorder and create a treatment plan that aligns with the child’s values, beliefs, and abilities, as well as those of their environment and the professional. As for the type of treatment, most empirical studies have shown that non-pharmacological treatment improves many of the symptoms of individuals with ADHD (behavioral problems, self-esteem, socio-familial problems, and quality of life for the child or adult as well as their family). However, it has been found that the combination of pharmacological and non-pharmacological treatment offers a greater normalization of the disorder, thus reducing core and coexisting symptoms. The decision to use medication should be made jointly with the child’s parents/caregivers, the affected child, or the adult, after explaining the expected benefits and potential side effects. This facilitates the achievement of the same therapeutic outcomes with lower doses of medication compared to pharmacological treatment alone. The psychosocial intervention plan should include a plan for the child, as well as one for the family and their school. Therefore, a focus of special importance in possible cases of ADHD is the correct and careful differential diagnosis, … [Continued]

For years, International Women’s Day has been celebrated, a day that symbolizes the fight for women’s equality. But, has real equality been achieved in the workplace? Clearly not, and what psychological consequences does this have for women? On March 8th, International Women’s Day is celebrated, previously known as International Working Women’s Day. It is a date that commemorates the fight of women for equality in their personal and professional development. Over time, it has become a significant and celebrated date in many countries around the world. The first celebration of this day took place on March 19th, 1911, in Austria, Germany, Denmark, and Switzerland, after the „II International Conference of Socialist Women” held in Copenhagen in 1910, which already demanded equal rights for women, especially regarding women’s suffrage, access to education, non-discrimination in the workplace, and other fundamental rights. Other countries progressively began celebrating Women’s Day, spreading its commemoration worldwide. Six decades later, in 1975, the United Nations General Assembly declared March 8th as „International Women’s Day”. The choice of the day itself is not very clear, and different versions have been developed around the fact that it is a reference date for various women’s demonstrations and protests in different countries. Currently, it has become a day to internationally demand women’s equal rights in all areas, celebrated in many parts of the world. A day that invites reflection on the achievements made to date, but that especially raises the question of the path to follow to achieve the objectives to be met since we receive many daily news about social or labor injustice situations related to women. The question is: Has gender equality truly been achieved? Workplace inequalities Currently, gender inequality in the workplace is still a real problem. For some time now, many feminist movements have denounced these inequalities present in labor markets. As a result, there has been a notable increase in analysis regarding this issue, reflecting the presence of subordination and discrimination in a significant number of women workers. Undoubtedly, there is still a long way to go to ensure that men and women can access job positions on equal terms. In this same line, based on the analysis carried out regarding this social problem, not only have the present inequalities been considered, but also the reasons that perpetuate them. Data from various studies show how, as the presence of women in the workforce increases, the existing structural imbalances worsen and even new ones emerge. Examples of this situation include the wage gap between men and women, the low presence of women in senior management positions, or the higher presence of women in temporary jobs. More striking differences regarding gender disparities in the workplace include: A higher percentage of women working part-time positions. This data is repeated in different countries and within the age range of 15 to 64 years old. Gender differences in the amount of „formal work” – that which is carried out under a paid job position – and „general work” – that which is carried out outside the work environment. As mentioned in the previous point, women often tend to have a lesser amount of formal work, however, it is common for them to have less leisure time. This situation is due to the fact that, in addition to formal work, many women continue to be responsible for household chores and childcare, becoming the largest group of people with a higher amount of general work. A higher number of cases of workplace harassment related to women. Wage differences. On average, women can earn 23% less than men. Women lead the list of unemployed individuals. A higher prevalence of women earning the minimum wage. Higher rates of maternity leave compared to paternity leave. 38.2% of women leave their jobs after the birth of a child, while in the case of men, the percentage drops to 7.4%. Higher risks of poverty for women. Data from the National Institute of Statistics (INE) confirms that the risk of poverty is 21.3% for women, compared to 20.1% for men. Additionally, it is important to highlight the existence of ongoing occupational or professional segregation that occurs at two levels: Horizontal segregation: refers to the greater prevalence of women in lower prestige and worse working conditions sectors. Vertical segregation: refers to gender inequality in business hierarchies, with a higher percentage of men in senior management positions and a higher percentage of women in cleaning, caregiving, and administrative roles. Indirect discrimination The advances made to date have facilitated a decrease in situations of labor discrimination against women. However, this situation has not prevented the emergence of new forms of indirect discrimination that, in addition to the serious repercussions they can have on the victim, are more difficult to detect and therefore correct. Generally, it occurs when a person is in a disadvantaged situation based on an apparently neutral criterion, it is ultimately a disguised discrimination. Some examples of this type of discrimination refer to gender differences regarding the reconciliation of professional and family life, as well as wage differences that, due to the presence of many factors associated with incentives, types of work sectors or occupations, make it difficult to analyze this inequality. Reconciliation of professional and family life Women workers face various difficulties that limit their professional development. One of the biggest impediments is related to reconciling professional and family life. According to data provided by the European Bureau of Statistics, EUROSTAT, the employment rate for men increases when they are in a relationship and have children. In contrast, cohabitation and the arrival of children lead to a decrease in the employment rate for women. This is associated with the limitations women face in terms of professional development or even finding a job and being able to balance all the tasks associated with family and household care. This addition has other social and emotional repercussions on women, such as a decrease in social life, an increase in stress levels, and a reduction in their overall quality of life. Emotional consequences derived from labor inequality All the situations of labor inequality described have significant repercussions in the lives of women. From the greater difficulties in finding or maintaining a job to the wage gap. These are undoubtedly factors that limit the purchasing power of this population segment, promoting the emergence of economic problems that explain the higher rates of female poverty. Likewise, this situation can promote the appearance of various concerns, as well as high levels of physiological activation, anxiety, and stress as a result. Along the same line, the higher amount of general work in day-to-day life caused by the combination of formal work and household and family-related tasks leads to a decline in leisure time, where the reduction of rewarding activities and the decrease in social contact can have direct repercussions on stress levels and the mood of women. Situations of inequality or discrimination are also responsible for various problems related to stress, a decline in work motivation, a decrease in self-esteem, high levels of anxiety, and…

Sindromul Noonan, Lupus eritematos cutanat, Sindromul Tourette, acromegalia… sunt câteva dintre bolile rare identificate. Aproximativ 7% din populația mondială suferă de o astfel de patologie. Cu toate acestea, persoanele afectate de bolile rare afirmă că nu primesc sprijinul necesar.

Bolile Rare
Bolile Rare (BR), cunoscute și sub denumirea de boli orfane, sunt patologii heterogene care afectează un număr redus de persoane în raport cu populația totală. Datorită prevalenței reduse, acestea sunt considerate rare, manifestându-se aproximativ la 5 din 10.000 de persoane. Există aproximativ 8.000 de boli rare diferite, astfel că, deși fiecare tip are puține cazuri, numărul total de persoane afectate este mare. Se estimează că aproximativ 7% din populația mondială suferă de o astfel de patologie. În Spania, există peste 3.000.000 de persoane care suferă de o boală rară. În ceea ce privește cauzele acestor boli, în majoritatea cazurilor acestea sunt necunoscute, cu toate că multe tipuri sunt determinate de anomalii genetice numite boli rare genetice. De asemenea, se investighează impactul pe care agenții infecțioși și/sau factorii de mediu îl pot avea asupra apariției și menținerii acestor boli.

Dificultăți în abordarea bolilor rare
Sunt multe dificultăți cu care se confruntă atât persoanele care suferă de o boală rară, cât și familiile lor. Mai jos sunt enumerate următoarele:
– Lipsa unui diagnostic precoce împiedică persoana afectată și familia să facă față patologiei într-un stadiu incipient, ceea ce are repercusiuni atât la nivel fizic, cât și psihologic. În cazul bolilor grave și pe termen lung, este dăunătoare întârzierea diagnosticului.
– Lipsa cunoștințelor despre anumite patologii împiedică și ea inițierea unui tratament adecvat. Atât medicii, psihologii, ergoterapeuții, cât și alți profesioniști din domeniul sănătății susțin că lipsa informațiilor despre acest tip de boli afectează dificultatea de a face un diagnostic precoce. De asemenea, această lipsă de informații afectează persoanele afectate și familiile lor, nu numai din cauza dificultăților în stabilirea unui diagnostic, ci și din cauza disconfortului produs de incertitudine, adică de a nu ști ce se întâmplă cu persoana care suferă de patologie.
– Absența unei vindecări este adesea descurajantă și o sursă de suferință pentru persoanele afectate, familiile și alte persoane apropiate. Bolile rare sunt în general degenerative și cronice și în majoritatea cazurilor duc la invaliditate. Din nefericire, nu s-a găsit încă un tratament pentru fiecare dintre tipurile diferite existente, ceea ce provoacă direct anxietate și frustrare în rândul acestor persoane. Cu toate acestea, în cazurile în care există un tratament disponibil, este important de menționat că îngrijirea medicală și un tratament adecvat pot îmbunătăți calitatea vieții persoanei afectate și pot crește speranța de viață.
– Necesitatea de a depinde de ceilalți pentru a face față zilnicului duce, în majoritatea cazurilor, la oboseală, neputință și la alte emoții. De exemplu, persoanele care suferă de scleroză laterală amiotrofică (ELA) pot rămâne complet paralizate, deoarece neuronii motori se degenerază și creierul nu mai poate iniția și controla mișcarea mușchilor.
– Experimentarea unor situații emoționale dificile ca urmare a asimilării și adapării la boala rară. După primirea unui diagnostic, atât pacientul, cât și familia sa pot trece printr-o situație emoțională complexă. Sentimente de neputință, frustrare, tristețe și furie pot duce chiar la probleme de sănătate psihologică. Dacă acest lucru se întâmplă, boala fizică va fi, de asemenea, afectată, deoarece organismul funcționează prin intermediul unei perspective holistice.

Ce poate aduce psihologia în cazul bolilor rare?
Pentru abordarea bolilor rare, este necesară o susținere bio-psiho-socială, adică un tratament multidisciplinar în care psihologii, medicii, asistenții sociali, ergoterapeuții, neurologii etc., să facă parte din aceeași echipă pentru a lucra împreună cu pacientul și familia pentru tratarea patologiei și pentru a îmbunătăți calitatea vieții acestuia. Din perspectiva psihologiei, este important să acordăm atenție următoarelor aspecte:

– Oferirea de timp și spațiu persoanei pentru exprimarea emoțiilor. Așa cum am menționat mai devreme, atât lipsa unui diagnostic precum și adaptarea la acesta pot genera dezechilibru emoțional, de aceea este necesar ca persoana să găsească un loc sigur în care să se poată exprima fără a se simți judecată sau vinovată. Aceasta va influența în reducerea anumitor emoții pe care le poate simți, cum ar fi anxietatea.
– Crearea unui mediu empatic. Este esențial ca cei care înconjoară persoana care suferă de boala rară, adică familia, terapeuții, colegii de muncă etc., să aibă o atitudine empatică. Aceasta nu înseamnă să facem din pacientul cu boala o victimă, ci să fim conștienți de dificultățile cu care se confruntă și să îi oferim ajutor din înțelegere acolo unde este necesar.
– Ajutarea la determinarea nevoilor. Poate fi benefic să evidențiem nevoile pe care le are pacientul pentru a da prioritate acelora care sunt mai importante într-un moment dat al vieții sale.
– Reducerea