De ceva ani încoace, s-au făcut eforturi pentru a explora efectele expunerii la situații violente, dar ce consecințe pot avea disputele și conflictele conjugale asupra copiilor? Schimbările socio-culturale care au avut loc în ultimii ani au facilitat un contact mai mare cu posibilitatea de separare a părinților. Cu toate acestea, acesta este un proces complex care necesită mai multe etape și care, uneori, nu se finalizează niciodată. Unii părinți preferă să nu formalizeze separarea datorită mai multor factori, cum ar fi circumstanțe economice sau extinderea posibilelor consecințe asupra copiilor. Cu toate acestea, un climat ostil, cu o frecvență ridicată a conflictelor și disputelor, poate genera efecte mai adverse asupra sănătății emoționale a copiilor. Conflictul dintre părinți poate fi definit ca existența unei opoziții reciproce manifestate prin exprimarea diferențelor dintre ei. Din perspectiva modelării, dinamica ostilă în rezolvarea acestor conflicte interpersonale va favoriza integrarea în rândul copiilor a unor modele inadecvate în rezolvarea acestui tip de experiențe. De aceea, s-au realizat cercetări care au încercat să aducă mai multă claritate în această privință.

De asemenea, în psihologie, studiul influenței diferitelor contexte de dezvoltare asupra progresului cognitiv, emoțional și social a devenit un subiect fundamental. În plus, sistemul familial, referindu-se la dinamica relațională cu figuri semnificative, devine grupul de referință cel mai important în acest proces, influențând construirea unei baze pentru socializare. În aceeași linie, autori precum Berger și Thompson afirmă că interacțiunile sau dinamica relațională care apar în cadrul familiei, în cadrul sarcinilor de creștere, vor influența configurația comportamentelor descendenților. De asemenea, rezultatele cercetărilor lui Kolko și colaboratorii săi în 1990 arată cum disfuncțiile conjugale, stresul asociat sau neacceptarea copilului a acestei situații generează probleme de socializare pentru acesta. Ca urmare, sunt numeroase studiile care au susținut corelația dintre conflictele conjugale și comportamentele disruptive ale descendenților. De asemenea, aceste cercetări au putut determina că variabilele cele mai reprezentative sunt frecvența și intensitatea conflictelor, stilul de dispută și rezolvarea acesteia sau prezența terților care încearcă să minimizeze problema.

Consecințele expunerii la conflicte Diverse cercetări au evidențiat prezența comportamentelor de explorare și interacțiune din partea copiilor atunci când s-a creat o bază sigură. Cu toate acestea, prezența conflictelor dintre părinți poate afecta încrederea și stabilirea unui ritm neregulat în dezvoltarea copilului. De asemenea, unul dintre studiile incluse în revista „Child Development” a concluzionat afirmând că comportamentele distructive ale părinților, cum ar fi agresiunile verbale, conflictele fizice sau retragerea, pot genera un dezechilibru emoțional la copii, precum și răspunsuri de anxietate, depresie sau comportamente disruptive. În aceeași linie, alte consecințe observate la copii după expunerea la conflicte conjugale sunt: tulburări ale stării de spirit, sentimente de nesiguranță, neputință sau izolare, iritabilitate și agresivitate, afectarea stimei de sine și a sentimentului de valoare personală, confuzie, scăderea performanței școlare, etc. De asemenea, este important de menționat că, în fața acestor conflicte, este frecventă găsirea unui sentiment de culpabilitate din partea copiilor, un răspuns emoțional generat prin nevoia interioară de a percepe un anumit control asupra unei experiențe anxioase. Ca urmare, expunerea la acest tip de conflicte a fost considerată unul dintre principalii factori de risc pentru dezvoltarea problemelor de comportament. O cercetare realizată de Justicia și Cantón (2011) a evidențiat o sensibilizare mai mare a copiilor față de o frecvență ridicată a conflictelor parentale, ceea ce poate genera, în ultimă instanță, dificultăți în adaptare. În cadrul acestui domeniu de cercetare, Muñoz-Rivas și Graña (2001) au realizat o cercetare cu scopul de a analiza relația dintre anumite factori familiali și consumul de droguri. Rezultatele au indicat un risc mai mare pentru debutul acestui consum la adolescenții cu o istorie de conflicte frecvente între părinți. De asemenea, alte cercetări s-au concentrat asupra transmiterii intergeneraționale a modalităților de rezolvare a conflictelor. Astfel, strategiile de rezolvare utilizate de părinți (ruptura, respingerea dialogului, utilizarea violenței fizice sau verbale…) au fost asociate cu competența socială a descendenților, calitatea relațiilor acestora și adaptarea lor școlară. De asemenea, s-a observat o influență asupra modalităților de atașament și interacțiune.

Influența asupra modalității de atașament De câțiva ani, diferiți autori au subliniat importanța îngrijitorilor principali sau a altor persoane semnificative în constituirea psihismului. Această teorie a fost legată de diferite concepte precum „cunoașterea relațională implicită” sau „cunoașterea relațională acționată”, care se referă la experiențele de atașament care sunt înscrise procedural și implicit, adică această cunoaștere nu poate

What traits does a person have who influences others? Would you perform better under the leadership of an autocratic or democratic leader? Which one will be more effective? On the morning of January 30, 1956, Martin Luther King Jr.’s house was attacked with bombs, with his wife and 9-week-old daughter inside. After the bomb exploded, several police officers and the mayor arrived. In addition, a crowd of angry black people gathered at the site of the explosion. They were armed and prepared to confront the culprits. However, King went to the door and asked those who had come looking for the responsible parties to adopt the doctrine of non-violence. The people there began to disperse peacefully, but why did such a large group of people, who were furious about the harm they had caused to King, listen to him? Leadership: In the different groups we are a part of, whether large or small, some people have more power and influence over others. The person who assumes this position of importance in the group is usually identified as the leader. The concept of leadership involves a complex web of issues and approaches. One of the most explored topics in psychology related to leadership has to do with how leaders are perceived, as well as the functions and behaviors of leadership, in order to understand what a leader does within the group and what they do for the group. A study carried out at Ohio State University highlighted the difficulty leaders face in evaluating employee performance while also caring about their emotional well-being. This duality of leadership and the pressure to be involved in both task performance and the feelings of the workers often leads to inefficiency on the part of the leader. For this reason, as Bales and Slater pointed out, in large groups there are two leaders: one in charge of task-related matters, and the other involved in the feelings of the individuals. How is a leader formed? Throughout history, many leaders have been highlighted and continue to be today. This has allowed for the study of certain common traits among them. Although not all leaders possess each of the following characteristics, they are considered the most frequent and necessary for leading a group: Vigor: The effectiveness in carrying out different activities as well as the display of strength. Intelligence: The ability to understand various complex matters and communicate effectively, demonstrating various competencies. Eloquence: The relevance of verbal ability as a determinant of leadership. Initiative and motivation: Carrying out different action plans and inspiring others with their own interest. Related to enthusiasm, being able to transmit the desire to be in power. Charisma: The ability to attract followers. Trustworthy: Essential for individuals to carry out established policies. Empathy: The ability to emotionally connect with group members. Sociability: The ability to relate to different types of people. This characteristic is also linked to the ability to interact with others and extroversion. Willingness to help: Willingness to interact and provide assistance if necessary. Accountability: Essential behavior for an effective leader is to take responsibility for what happens in the group, even if it is not a requirement of their leadership position. Self-confidence: Transmitting strength and validating one’s own abilities. Organization skills: Having organizational abilities and being flexible in the face of changes that may arise. Watchfulness: Being attentive to various action plans and having explicit knowledge of what is being carried out. Kindness: If group members feel respected and the environment is relaxed, followers will be more motivated to continue following that person. In addition to possessing certain essential characteristics for performing the role of leader, situational factors are also very important. That is, the need at a certain moment for a group of people to turn to an individual who can meet the demands of the specific situation. Some historians and psychologists argue that if Germany had not been declared the loser in the Great War, Adolf Hitler, with his ideas and mandates, would have been imprisoned or institutionalized. That is to say, it is not only necessary to have a series of traits to become a leader – if that were the case, there would be more leaders than there currently are – but it is also important for certain situational circumstances to exist. For this reason, the needs of the followers themselves and the demands of the group also influence the formation of a leader. What makes an effective leader? Leaders often wonder what the most effective way is to lead when in power. The styles that are most frequently highlighted are autocratic and democratic. Some social psychologists have conducted research to measure which style is most effective. For example, in one of these experiments, leaders were trained in the different defined styles and students rotated every 6 weeks, being under the direction of all three types of leaders. The autocratic leader established the protocols to be followed by the group, defined all the steps to be taken, and the different techniques to be used, even choosing the working groups. On the other hand, the democratic leader allowed each group to define the protocol to be followed. Their way of addressing subordinates was mostly through suggestions rather than orders. At the end of the study, it was found that the boys who had been under the authoritarian leader exhibited higher levels of hostility and aggression compared to those under the democratic leader. In fact, the work was of higher quality with the second type of leader. Furthermore, it was observed that when the authoritarian leader left the group, the individuals stopped working. However, the same did not happen under the direction of the other type of leader, as the boys continued working even when this leader was absent. The complications that were applied as part of the experiment disturbed the group led by the authoritarian leader, but those under the power of the democratic leader tolerated the frustrations to a greater extent. This situation also occurs in groups of adults. Although productivity levels (in terms of the amount of work done) may be higher under the leadership of an autocratic leader, the quality of the work is often better when under the leadership of the other style. This applies not only to jobs, but also to other leaders in different groups to which members belong to in society (politicians, influencers, association presidents, etc.). However, as mentioned earlier, the situational and environmental factors that the group is experiencing are very important. For example, the historical era or the ways in which each individual relates to others. And you, what kind of leader do you prefer?

Lately, there has been a noticeable increase in the number of public reports of sexual harassment in the workplace by various well-known individuals. What does this problem consist of? Under what circumstances does it occur? Sexual harassment is defined as a multifactorial social phenomenon where various dimensions can be distinguished that influence its origin and maintenance. It is a problem whose existence has been documented by numerous research studies due to the serious repercussions it has on the victims and the organization. In the same line, it consists of a form of harassment developed through various manifestations of a sexual nature. Additionally, one of its consequences is the creation of an unfavorable, intimidating, and offensive work environment that can affect the skills and well-being of the affected person. Furthermore, in recent weeks, a new alarm has been raised in relation to this issue as a result of the proliferation of various reports in different media outlets by public figures in the United States. Spanish actresses such as Aitana Sánchez Gijón or Carla Hidalgo have also joined this initiative, contributing to the confirmation of an alarming reality that requires appropriate intervention and prevention. On the other hand, due to the lack of awareness about this social problem, various myths about it have spread. One of the most common is its consideration as an isolated fact, characteristic of small companies with employees in precarious work situations. However, thanks to research studies, it has been shown that it is not an isolated or extraordinary behavior, but rather a recurring one. Therefore, it is a form of violence that violates the rights of individuals, generating serious repercussions of different nature, and whose origin can be facilitated by various work conditions (job positions, relationships between colleagues…) or personal factors of the individuals involved. Likewise, this violence can be carried out through different behavioral modalities: Physical. They can manifest through various forms of contact such as touching, brushing, or patting, and in more extreme cases, even rape or coercion. Verbal. They mainly appear in the form of sexual insinuations, obscene comments, flirting, etc. Non-verbal. Some examples include the display of sexual material (photographs, videos, writings), gestures, glances, etc. This great variety of manifestations of sexual harassment has made it difficult to define behaviors that could be included under this designation, which may have influenced the identification and reporting of such behaviors since the socio-cultural context may have normalized some of these behaviors. Consequently, it is difficult to determine the prevalence of this problem because, in many cases, it is masked within legitimate behaviors or the reporting is hindered by factors such as fear of lack of credibility from the environment or fear of job loss. However, a survey conducted by the Women’s Secretariat of Comisiones Obreras indicated that around 14.5% of workers have experienced some form of sexual harassment throughout their professional lives. Factors related to sexual harassment at work Through various studies, sexual harassment in the workplace has been linked to factors of various kinds. Initially, this form of violence was associated solely with gender issues due to the higher prevalence, at least in the number of reports, among women. Likewise, aspects such as sexual discrimination, the proportion of men and women within companies, the types of positions or tasks they perform, and the sexualization of the work environment have contributed to the perpetuation of this belief. However, a greater number of research studies and documented cases have debunked this idea and confirmed that this is a problem that also affects men, although to a lesser extent. In addition, other variables have been observed in many people who experience this type of violence: young individuals who have recently joined a company, immigrants or members of ethnic minorities, individuals with low income and basic or intermediate education. Likewise, the consolidation and perpetuation of sexual harassment has been correlated with individuals who have been harassed over a long period of time and who, for various reasons, resort to reporting it as a last resort. Conversely, years later there is a change in the nature of this type of violence, becoming considered a consequence of power relationships in the workplace. Within this perspective, there was a higher proportion of cases between individuals of different hierarchical positions within the same company, where the superior exercises their power to make the other person comply with certain demands and, in this way, not lose any benefits related to their job position. As a result, the fear of losing one of these benefits or of being definitively dismissed is one of the main factors that hinder the reporting of these types of problems. However, it should be noted that a great number of cases have been observed among individuals who occupy similar positions in their work. Therefore, we must take into account that this is a multifactorial process in which it is impossible to reduce the cause of this problem to simplist explanations such as power relations or gender issues. In the same line, we must acknowledge that this social problem, despite occurring within a specific institution, is based on interpersonal relationships. For this reason, in addition to the corporate nature of the company, it is necessary to take into account the intra- and inter-subjective characteristics of those involved, such as the reproduction of conscious or unconscious action and bonding patterns established through previous interactions with other significant figures. Consequences of sexual harassment There are various difficulties that a person who has suffered or is currently experiencing sexual harassment in their workplace faces. The impact is evident, especially in the psychological realm. The main consequences are as follows: Low self-esteem. The person’s integrity is affected as a result of the assaults and humiliations, and feelings of worthlessness that the victim tends to experience are important to note. Believing that they are weaker than their colleagues or that they are unable to confront the harasser is common. Feelings of anger, frustration, and rage are also frequent. Decreased motivation. Being harassed at work inevitably leads to a decrease in the desire to go to work, given that the aggressor is there and it is where the violence takes place. This lack of motivation, driven by the fear of the assaults being repeated, in some cases results in absenteeism in the workplace. Changes in relationships. The person’s relationships are disrupted. Not only in the harasser-harassed relationship but also with other colleagues. Additionally, this situation can affect relationships that are not within the work environment. That is, other significant relationships of the person being attacked. This refers to the greater difficulties that may arise in the socio-affective area of this individual (family, partner, friends, etc.). Lower work performance and increased accidents. Mental dullness often leads to cognitive difficulties: decreased concentration, memory problems, difficulties with attention and information processing…, which in turn increases the accident rates in jobs involving physical risks. Repercussions on mental health. Stress, anxiety, phobias, panic attacks, or depression are the most common psychological pathologies experienced in the described situation. Sleeping disorders. Difficulty falling asleep or the quality of sleep is affected due to fear and/or mental agitation. Nightmares during the REM stage of sleep are also very common, with some individuals even reliving the harassment situation. Behavioral changes. Ceasing to carry out certain actions that were previously routine (for example, during break time, during lunch…). Different authors define isolation as the main change in behavior. Harm to the work situation.

The postmodern era has brought about changes in society: a reduction and practically elimination of geographic barriers, different forms of communication, increased isolation between people in close proximity, more individualistic lifestyles… in relation to these changes, it is important to note that the way therapy is conducted has also been altered in some fields. The field of psychotherapy has experienced the expansion of different types of online therapy: therapy through chat, email, real-time virtual therapy through various platforms (Skype, Hangouts, video calls through WhatsApp)…but is it really as effective as in-person therapy? There is no doubt that online therapy can have some advantages, especially in cases where people have reduced mobility or when individuals who have started therapy move to other locations. However, some characteristics that have been highlighted as advantageous in this type of therapy may not be so. For example, one particularity that is emphasized as favorable is privacy. By not having to go to a center or psychology clinic, the patient can conduct the session from their home, workplace, or any other location. However, there are numerous cases of people seeking professional help who are afraid of social interactions, sharing spaces, or even feeling a lot of shame about themselves. Being at home or in other „controlled” places could become a dysfunctional refuge. Benefits of In-Person Therapy Despite the modern trend of implementing online therapy, most therapeutic processes are still carried out in person, and there are many advantages it offers compared to other types of interventions: Metacommunication. A fundamental aspect of therapy is the signals and symbols that inevitably appear in the communication between therapist and patient. This aspect is essential to achieve a deep level of human communication. While it is important to listen to what the patient says in their speech, even more information is provided by what the person expresses through nonverbal communication. This includes movements, attitude, gestures, eye contact, body position, and even the overall context. A significant part of the communication act involves what is not verbally said, particularly unconscious information. This type of information can only be fully gathered through in-person therapy. In cases of video therapy, some of these aspects can be observed but many others are left behind (since only the person’s face is seen, and sometimes in a blurry image). In chat or email-based therapy, metacommunicative components are completely sacrificed, and the therapist has to interpret the messages they read without being able to attend to anything other than the words. Throughout psychological studies, it has been emphasized that there is not only one type of mental representation. Freud distinguished between thing representation and word representation in any experience that a person has with themselves or others. The former refers to the inscription of sensory and motor schemas of various kinds, while the latter refers to discursive forms through beliefs, ideas, convictions, etc. This classification allows for differentiation between lived experiences – emotions, action schemas regarding relationships with oneself and others – and heard experiences – what relates to discourses, justifications, explanations, or one’s own knowledge about themselves and others. Warmth. When the therapist and patient share the same physical space, it can bring more closeness and warmth to the therapeutic process because there is no need for any element to establish the communicative act (computer, phone, Wi-Fi network…), but rather with the mere presence of both individuals (or more in cases of couples or family therapy), the therapy can begin. Safe space. Despite the belief that there is no safer place than one’s own home, in therapeutic terms, this is not always the case. First, as mentioned earlier, the home could be a dysfunctional refuge in cases where the patient has strong feelings of shame, depression, agoraphobia, fear of establishing relationships with others, etc. Second, disruptions can occur at home, for example, someone knocking on the door during a session, a phone call, other people in the house who impede total freedom of expression, etc. In an in-person session, this does not happen because during the session, the space completely belongs to the patient without any interference from others. On a more unconscious level, a sense of safety is created on a psychological and emotional level when the patient always goes to the same place, at the same time, on the same day of the week, with the same furniture in the office, the same scent, etc. This is related to the process of changing certain neural circuits on a psychic level. This control of environmental aspects by the therapist (background music, lighting, temperature…) contributes to the sense of security that the patient feels. Fluidity. Knowing each other physically and understanding the other person’s presence helps make sessions more fluid. Previously, the amount of information provided by nonverbal communication was mentioned – movements, gestures, postures… Similarly, being able to be with the professional will provide a lot of information to the patient. The Importance of the Therapeutic Relationship Psychotherapy is composed of a special type of bond or helping relationship where the patient can convey their issues to a therapist capable of responding empathetically, thus initiating the therapeutic relationship. Freud was the first to talk about the relevance of the therapeutic bond when he stated that transference precedes intervention. Thus, the importance of the therapist-patient relationship within psychological interventions began to be emphasized. This bond has been defined as the presence of an alliance or interpersonal commitment in the therapist-patient dyad, reflecting the contributions of both parties in an intersubjective process characterized by different stages or levels of therapeutic work. Within this bond, it is important to highlight the presence of an intrapersonal experience characterized by the individual’s experience in the context of interaction with others. In this experience, the participation through different roles played by the therapist and patient is highlighted, along with personal experience regarding variables such as perceived control level, self-esteem, etc. This is manifested in intersubjective interaction through different levels of openness or resistance in the bond. It is an interactive system of mutual influence whose dynamics involve the intrasubjective level, the internal world constituted by the individual’s prior experiences that are manifested in the relationship with the other, and the intersubjective level, the interrelation between the subjectivities of the dyad’s components. Until a few years ago, clinical intervention focused on the material and information provided by the patient’s discourse without considering the material facilitated by relational experience. However, in recent decades, various researchers have made different contributions (Stern and implicit relational knowledge, Fonagy and implicit memory…), highlighting the relevance of experiential phenomena. As a result, these contributions have been included within one of the main types of memory highlighted by neuroscience, procedural memory. This type of memory refers to action-emotion schemas, automatic ways of being with others, or automatic emotional reactions. This type of information cannot be verbalized or narrated by the patient, but it manifests itself in the context of interaction with the other person unconsciously. Therefore, the therapist’s task is to detect this knowledge in order to intervene on it…

Pain is a condition that currently affects millions of people. In Spain, the percentage of the population suffering from pain is around 23.4%, making it one of the most impactful issues today. Furthermore, it has become one of the main causes of suffering and distress due to the fact that this condition is accompanied by other factors of different natures. Thus, a pathology that until very recently was considered to be of organic nature, is now considered to be a problem of psychological or social nature due to the expansion of its repercussions.

In this sense, there has been a notable evolution in the conception of pain, moving from simplistic approaches to current multidimensional models, becoming a complex issue due to various neurological advances and, especially, the research by Melzack and Wall with the so-called „Gate Control Theory”. As a consequence, the number of research studies regarding the role of psychological factors in the pain process has increased. Within this field, Lazarus’ stress model has been incorporated, which delves into the evaluation and coping of the individual in the face of a potentially threatening event. According to this theory, the experience of pain could cause greater or lesser disability depending on how it is evaluated and coped with.

What is pain? The definition of this condition has evolved over time, generating new forms of study and treatment. The initial definitions emphasized the physical or organic nature of this pathology, considering it as a physical sensation that arises as a direct consequence of tissue damage. From this perspective, if there is pain, there must be a wound or damage to justify it. However, later on, the International Association for the Study of Pain (IASP) described it as a „sensory and emotional experience associated with actual or potential tissue damage”. As a result, psychology starts to have greater relevance in the study and treatment of this condition. Furthermore, by highlighting the mention of „potential damage”, cases where there is a sensation of pain without actual injury are included; therefore, a possible perception of pain is discussed in which no organic cause is detected. Currently, pain is considered a multidimensional phenomenon composed of perceptual and affective experiences that are conditioned by various interactive factors (organic, psychological, social, cultural, etc.).

Along these lines, it is from the 1980s onwards when pain begins to be understood as a complex subjective experience that requires a biopsychosocial intervention, that is, it is considered as the result of the interaction of factors of different natures. These factors can produce, maintain, and/or worsen the existing condition by acting as modulators that influence the individual’s subjective internal experience, nociceptive stimulation, and responses. Furthermore, it has been found that psychological factors play a fundamental role in conditions involving chronic pain, such as fibromyalgia, which is a pathology in itself.

Psychological factors associated with pain: On the other hand, several research studies have observed that cognitive and emotional variables such as anxiety, sadness, or anger can better explain the differences found in terms of pain perception and tolerance than other personality variables. In many cases, pain can generate some degree of disability due to the repercussions it has in different areas of life (work, academic, family, etc.). Feelings of uselessness and alterations in mood are also common, which can lead to a deterioration in interpersonal relationships. Socially, feelings of incomprehension are frequent, even from loved ones. Additionally, the difficulty of establishing a medical diagnosis and an appropriate treatment for these conditions increases the perception of misunderstanding by professionals. This situation, together with mood alterations and interpersonal conflicts, can lead to a continuous feeling of loneliness.

On the other hand, some of the emotional responses most associated with pain are:

Anxiety: Through different research studies, the relationship between anxiety and pain has been demonstrated. Anxiety acts as an amplifier capable of increasing the intensity of perceived sensation and the maintenance of pain. It has also been observed that individuals with chronic pain conditions have higher levels of anxiety and a higher rate of related disorders.

Emotional disturbances: Depression is a pathology that has attracted great interest from pain researchers. In some studies, a higher prevalence of this condition has been observed in people with chronic pain. However, the prevalence has shown great variability in different research, making it difficult to determine the level of comorbidity between both conditions.

Anger: This is one of the most observed emotional responses in chronic pain research. This response is favored by various situations such as the limited available information about the cause of the problem, failures in different treatments, persistent somatic complaints, etc. These situations can generate a continuous sense of frustration and lead to an intense anger response. Anger is one of the emotions that can produce the greatest physiological activation in the body, consequently increasing the perceived level of pain.

In addition to these emotional responses, other factors linked to this condition include:

Previous history: Similar to other pathologies, the individual’s previous history influences the origin and maintenance of chronic pain. In reference to chronic pain, individuals suffering from this condition have a higher percentage of parents who also have a similar pathology compared to those without pain. Furthermore, regarding their past experiences, a higher prevalence of stressful and adverse situations has been found.

Social support: This factor has been considered a modulator of pain. Studies have indicated the presence of less pain and/or disability in individuals who perceive having a greater social support network. Through this support, individuals have the opportunity to share their experiences and feel listened to, as well as receive more information, which could improve their coping strategies.

Coping strategies: These strategies have been linked to variations in parameters involved in pain perception, emotional response, and their consequences (disability, interference, etc.). Likewise, several studies have observed that the strategies used by individuals predict their adjustment to the pain. In this regard, passive coping strategies have been associated with higher intensity and frequency of pain perception, higher levels of stress, and more frequent medical visits. On the other hand, active coping has been associated with a decrease in pain parameters and disability or interference.

To conclude, it is important to highlight that the evolution of the concept of pain has led to changes in the modalities of intervention, where psychological treatment has become an essential element that is part of many multidisciplinary intervention packages. However, despite recognizing the great influence of emotional factors in this pathology, the presence of psychologists remains scarce in some pain treatment units.

The number of older people suffering from depression is growing rapidly. In many cases, depressive symptoms are confused with signs of aging. Do you know the risk factors for depression in older adults? It is estimated that by the year 2025, there will be approximately 1.2 billion elderly people in the world, with this number growing exponentially. Additionally, experts warn that approximately by the year 2040, the number of older adults will surpass that of younger people. Therefore, the need to increase attention to the elderly in their diverse and varied facets becomes increasingly important. Not only because of the high number of older adults, but also because they can enjoy a good quality of life, feeling attended to and listened to by the community. In order to advance in this field, it is necessary to recognize and work in gerontology, given that it is the science that studies old age and related phenomena, and can be done from an interdisciplinary approach, that is, working from different fields of health (medicine, psychology, physical therapy, occupational therapy, social work…). It has been found that one of the most common conditions in this stage of life is depression. It is important to note that, like any other moment in life (childhood, adolescence, youth, adulthood), it is a disease. Often, this sadness, low self-esteem, lack of motivation, hopelessness… are confused with a „normal” state of aging, which makes diagnosis and therefore treatment difficult. Older adults suffering from depression may experience higher rates of insomnia and suicidal ideation, as well as more pronounced memory loss. In addition, reaction times tend to be longer. The prevalence rate of depression in adults is higher than in older people; however, the consequences are more serious in the latter due to physical illness, suicide risk, lack of functional capacity, etc. Depression is often associated with reduced physical functioning. It has been found that in many cases, reducing depression increases physical function. Comorbidity between depression and anxiety is common in older people. If both disorders are diagnosed, it is essential to treat depression first due to the risk of suicide, as it has been found that over 80% of older people who commit suicide suffer from depression. Psychosocial risk factors for depression include: isolation, loss of autonomy and independence, suffering from other physical illnesses or dementia, economic problems, psychological violence, loss of roles, grief, moving, children leaving the family home, cognitive changes, the need to be listened to, conflict in family dynamics, retirement, chronic pain, fear of death, and having different caregivers. As you can see, there are multiple and varied factors that influence the onset of depression in older adults. It is essential to communicate with the elderly person we are concerned about and provide them with space and time to express themselves. Myths about aging related to depression often condition society, professionals, and even patients. Therefore, it is important to address and debunk these myths in order to reduce patient distress. It is common to be depressed when you are old. Normalizing depression in older people is commonplace, however, despite the suffering that a person may have experienced throughout different stages of life, it is not something normal, so it is completely necessary to address the illness. It is too late for changes to occur. Thinking that older adults cannot change…