What is Corruption? A generic definition of corruption could be „the abuse of entrusted power for personal gain” (Transparency International, 2009, p.14), but in general, we understand corruption to encompass a varied number of behaviors, such as: giving and receiving bribes, embezzlement, fraud, extortion, favoritism, among others. However, the consideration of corrupt behavior is not homogeneous and varies from one society to another, meaning that it is a social phenomenon that depends on the values, norms, and rules of each culture (Julián y Bonavia, 2020). In recent years, corruption cases have become part of our daily lives in our country: the Gürtel or Púnica scandal, the Panama Papers or Bárcenas case, the ERE case… and that is why we ask ourselves: Why do those who have a lot always want more? The answer to this question is not simple and from Social Psychology, some of the different elements that contribute to the appearance and maintenance of corrupt behavior have been studied.
Social approval: First of all, we must talk about the historical moment in which we find ourselves. We live in the era of postmodernity, where there is a predominant exaltation of forms, individualism, and lack of social commitment. Being focused on oneself, on one’s own professional, personal, academic, and social success are increasingly prevalent issues in every society and culture. Currently, image prevails in our society and we see ourselves through the eyes of others. We feel recognized and obtain status when others know what we have. That is, our achievements are valuable to the extent that we can show them off on social networks. On the other hand, this is combined with a progressive loss of importance of ethical values, such as honesty and integrity. Currently, we do not gain prestige or status for being good people, honest individuals are not perceived as role models, but rather those who possess things, who consume, who are „up to date,” and who boast about it on social networks. We have gone from a society governed by religious values to living in a society governed by materialistic and utilitarian values, where material goods and their usefulness are more important than fundamental values. This creates a breeding ground for the proliferation, maintenance, and acceptance of behaviors considered corrupt or dishonest, through which material possession or personal benefit is increased, while the way in which such benefit has been achieved, whether through ethical and/or legal means or not, loses importance. In fact, it has been observed that perceiving the environment as corrupt contributes to further expanding this behavior (Dong, Dulleck, and Torgler, 2012), but on the other hand, this ends up generating a lower perceived life satisfaction in people (Tay, Herian, and Diener, 2014).
Organizational environments: On the other hand, it has been seen how different aspects of organizational environments influence corrupt behavior. For example, organizations with lax, ambiguous, permissive norms and a more hierarchical organization will be more prone to corruption. In addition, the behavior of the leaders of these organizations and whether they pursue, share, and/or allow corrupt practices will be decisive. If an individual sees that corrupt behavior is not punished and instead rewarded, they will reproduce it more easily. That is, the more a person perceives their organizational environment as corrupt, the more likely they are to engage in corrupt behavior. If an individual perceives their behavior as normal within the circle they interact with, then it will not constitute a violation of the group’s norms. In an environment where corruption prevails, it is more likely that the consequences of being discovered will be downplayed, social norms will be distorted, and one’s own beliefs about dishonesty will not be questioned (Cialdini, Reno, and Kallgren, 1990; Gino, Ayal, and Ariely, 2009).
Perceived risk of engaging in corrupt behavior: People who engage in corrupt behavior are exposed to the risk of being discovered and its possible consequences. Despite the fact that engaging in corrupt behavior entails a risk, participants in it often underestimate the probability of being caught, especially if they already have previous experience in similar situations, as this distorts the perceived probability of being detected (Djawadi and Fahr, 2013; Kahneman, 2011). Additionally, these individuals resort to rationalization strategies that are used as a subsequent justification for their corrupt behavior, highlighting the „good intentions” behind this dishonest act (Rabl and Kühlmann, 2009). Human beings are extraordinarily good at rationalizing unethical acts if they benefit from them (Søreide, 2014), which allows us to maintain the image we have of ourselves as integrous and honest individuals.
Beliefs and cultural values: As mentioned earlier, some authors explain corruption based on deficiencies in the ethical and moral values of society, as well as the loss of prosocial ties among individuals that are being replaced by exacerbated utilitarianism. That is, the tendency to prioritize the utility of any aspect or behavior above other prosocial issues currently prevails. In relation to this, it has been observed that a particularly meritocratic, authoritarian, materialistic, and socially dominant value system is closely related to a greater tendency to engage in corrupt behavior (Tan, Liu, Huang, and Zheng, 2017). Furthermore, justifying this value system, or the continuous exposure we have to images of politicians involved in corruption cases, are determining factors in predicting future corrupt behavior and its perpetuation instead of being eradicated.
Personality traits: Different personality traits have been associated with corrupt behavior: psychopathy, marked antisocial behavior characterized by low empathy and lack of remorse; narcissism, excessive admiration of oneself that guides one’s behavior; Machiavellianism, a way of acting to obtain what one desires characterized by cunning and hypocrisy; extraversion, a tendency to interact with others and openly express feelings; motivation for external rewards (extrinsic motivation), a type of motivation in which the motives for performing a certain behavior lie in external reinforcements, such as a salary or praise; low levels of self-esteem, having higher self-esteem has been associated with lower levels of materialistic values (Liang et al., 2016), which in turn would reduce the tendency towards corrupt behavior.
As we can see, the explanation of corrupt behavior from Social Psychology is multifactorial and, although it varies from one society to another, it responds to a series of common patterns that manifest and repeat themselves, with their cultural particularities, in different societies.
Elena Zamora Gracia, psychologist at Aesthesis Psychologists Madrid
References:
Cialdini, R., Reno, R., & Kallgren, C. (1990). A focus theory of normative conduct: Recycling the concept of norms to reduce littering in public places. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58(6), 1015–1026.
Díaz, Á. (2003). Ética y corrupción. Lo público y la democracia. Convergencia. Revista de Ciencias Sociales, 10(31), 141–151.
Diego, O. (2012). El problema de la corrupción en América Latina y la incorporación de la ética para su solución. Espacios Públicos, 15(35), 48–62.
Djawadi, B., & Fahr, R. (2013). The impact of risk perception and risk attitudes on corrupt behavior: Evidence from a petty corruption experiment. Discussion Paper Series.
Dong, B., Dulleck, U., & Torgler, B. (2012). Conditional corruption. Journal of Economic Psychology, 33(3), 609–627.
Gino, F., Ayal, S., & Ariely, D. (2009). Contagion and differentiation in unethical behavior: The effect of
